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Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
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Time-to-Collision Judgments Under Realistic Driving Conditions

Raymond J. Kiefer

General Motors, Warren, Michigan

Carol A. Flannagan

University of Michigan Transportation Institute, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Christian J. Jerome

University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida

Objective: This study examined perceived time to collision (TTC) with automobile drivers under realistic approach, rear-end crash scenario conditions. Background: TTC refers to the time before impact if prevailing conditions continue. Method: In this test track study involving 51 drivers ranging from 20 to 70 years old, the driver's vision was occluded at either 3.6 or 5.6 s TTC during an in-lane approach to a lead vehicle. Drivers provided TTC estimates by pressing a button the instant they felt that they would have collided with the vehicle ahead. Results: Results indicated that TTC was consistently underestimated. The TTC ratio (perceived TTC/actual TTC) increased as driver speed decreased and as relative speed increased. These ratios were largely unaffected by age, gender, actual TTC, viewing time (1 s vs. continuous), and the presence of an eyes-forward, mental addition distraction task. Conclusion: Overall, these results suggest that under these low TTC conditions drivers estimate TTC in a relatively uniform fashion and that they are capable of providing this estimate based on a brief glimpse to the vehicle ahead. Application: These results are being used to develop an alert timing approach for a forward collision warning system intended to assist drivers in avoiding rear-end crashes with the vehicle ahead.

Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Vol. 48, No. 2, 334-345 (2006)
DOI: 10.1518/001872006777724499
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